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“Comprehensive Plan for Makkah, Madinah and Mashaer,” Urban Development Strategy for Ancient Holy Sites in Saudi Arabia, 2009

Abstract

In 2009, I2UD submitted a development strategy, “Comprehensive Plan for Makkah, Madinah and Mashaer,” to promote the preservation and integrated urban development in Saudi Arabia for the Holy Cities of Mecca (Makkah Al-Mukarama) and Medina (Al-Madinah Al-Munawara), and the holy sites area of Mashaer (Mina, Muzdalifah, and Arafat) in Mecca. The project included a series of 6 workshops, led by François Vigier and supported by Moriyama & Teshima Architects & Planning, the Development Commission of Makkah Al-Mukarama, Al-Madinah Al-Munawara and Al-Mashaer Al-Muqaddasa (DCOMMM), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

The development plan involved seven main steps:

  1. To buy land and compensate for lost development rights;
  2. To build world class developments;
  3. To facilitate informal area improvements;
  4. To improve mobility around Mecca;
  5. To beautify and improve the quality of space within the city and create peaceful places;
  6. To integrate Mashaer as a critical part of the city; and
  7. To support strategic infrastructure management.

Documents various component reports of the plan, documents from six workshops, including outlines and reports, and notes and reviews authored by François Vigier.

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Project Year:2009-2010
Project Type:Development Strategy
Geographic Regions:Makkah, Madinah, and the Mashaer district, Saudi Arabia
Reports:

Workshops:

Reports & Plans:
Authors:François Vigier
Sponsors:Development Commission of Makkah Al-Mukarama, Al-Madinah Al-Munawara and Al-Mashaer Al-Muqaddasa (DCOMMM); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Categories:Historic Districts
  
ID:2009_04_001

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Seminar on “Protecting Cultural and Natural Heritage in the Western Hemisphere: Lessons from the Past, Looking to the Future,” World Cultural Heritage Convention 30th Anniversary, Conference Materials, 2002

Abstract

The Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design hosted a seminar in December 2002 titled “Protecting Heritage of Western Hemisphere,” organized as part of the celebration of the 30th anniversary of the World Cultural Heritage Convention. The seminar brought together international policy makers, public officials, practitioners, and academics involved in the protection and management of national and cultural heritage sites.

Documents include a substantial list of conference materials, including lecture presentations by guest speakers, memos, conference addresses by participants, transcripts of individual panel contributions, and a conference booklet containing a schedule and list of participants.


[Excerpt: CUDS Internal Memo, Francois Vigier, June 2002, p. 1]

“Open to the general public, the Seminar [was] attended by senior officials of UNESCO, the World Heritage Center, The World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the Organization of American States and bring together policy makers, public officials, practitioners and academics involved in the protection and management of natural, archeological and urban cultural heritage sites in the Western Hemisphere.

“Key participants include[d] international organizations and foundations, bilateral and international development agencies and representatives of the major institutions and foundations active in promoting the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage in multiple regions:

Ecuador — Peru National Park — Colombia — Venezuela — Upper Amazon (Peru and Brazil) — Cuna language regions (Central Panama) — Galapagos Islands

“The objective of the Seminar [was] to review past and present experiences. An open discussion of the economic, social and managerial issues in the designation, conservation and use of cultural sites [addressed]:

▪ Disseminate cutting-edge approaches;
▪ Allow an exchange of successful practices; and
▪ Help the participants address emerging challenges in the preservation of the natural and manmade cultural heritage.”

Project Year:2002
Project Type:Conference
Geographic Regions:Cambridge, Massachusetts, US (Seminar Location) / Latin America / United States
Reports:
Authors:Francesco Bandarin; Mounir Bouchenaki; Orestes del Castillo; Francesco di Castri; Belia Contreras; Maureen Finnerty; Silvana Giaimo; Pamela W. Hawkes; Maria-Valeria Junho Pena; Roberto L. Klabin; Vincent J. Lujan; Claudio C. Maretti;Colonel James G. May; David Maybury-Lewis; William Moss; Bernie Perley; Eduardo Rojas; Peter Rowe; Ismail Serageldin; Bradford H. Sewell; Anthony Stocks; François Vigier
Sponsors:Center for Urban Development Studies, Harvard University Graduate School of Design; United States Committee of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (US-ICOMOS); UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Categories:Evaluations and Assessments
  
ID:2002_12_001

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I2UD Photograph Collection, Gallery 4: Chile: Santiago, Concepción, and Talcahuano (1992-1993)

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IEP August 2000: “Boston, Massachusetts: Strategic Plans and Community Participation,” International Education Programs, 2000

Abstract

The Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design conducted an International Education Program (IEP) on “Boston, Massachusetts: Strategic Plans and Community Participation” in August 2000. The curriculum for the program included case studies and project summaries from influential offices and agencies from Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Many case studies were replicated for later years of the IEP program.

Multiple curriculum components are contained in each document. See individual cover pages for full section indexes, or the Program Reference Materials List (Volume 1 Index). For example, the document “Boston Strategic Plans and Community Participation (Case Studies)” contains multiple works:

  • A Civic Vision for Turnpike Air Rights (Strategic Development Study Committee, Boston Redevelopment Authority Boston, MA, 2000)
  • Private/Public Development of South Station (Center for Urban Development Studies, Cambridge, MA, 1995)
  • Boston 400 Guide to Community Participation (Boston Redevelopment Authority, Boston, MA, Summer 1999)
  • Choosing to Compete: A Statewide Strategy for Job Creation and Economic Growth: Executive Summary (Executive Office of Economic Affairs, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, May 1993)

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:2000
Project Type:IEP; Education
Geographic Regions:Boston, Massachusetts, US / Providence, Rhode Island, USA / New York Metropolitan Area, USA / Paris, France / Szczecin, Poland / Tirana, Albania / St. Petersburg, Russia
Reports:
Authors:François Vigier; Mona Serageldin; John Driscoll; David Jones; Christopher Rogers; Kath Phelan; Linda Haar; Thomas Nally; Carol R. Johnson; Deborah Goddard; Richard Henderson; Martin Nee; Jorge Martinez; David Knowles; Margaret Thalwitz; Robert Yaro; Kimberley Wilson
Sponsors:Center for Urban Development Studies, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:International Education Program; Education
  
ID:2000_08_002

Related I2UD Projects

Beginning in 1982, the Unit for Housing and Urbanization at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design hosted International Training Programs (ITP), an annual series of 2- to 4-week summer seminars designed to strengthen the decision-making skills of senior professionals in public and private agencies responsible for urban development.

The I2UD Digital Library holds curriculum materials for ITPs from 1988, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, and 1998:

The tradition of ITPs continued after 2000, when the Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) (a re-organization of the Unit) continued training seminars as International Education Programs (IEP) from 2000-2004:

Programs included inter-linked modules, lectures, case studies, interactive computer simulation models, site visits to urban projects, discussion groups and networking with professional counterparts from international metropolitan regions. Sessions had a modular format and structured team teaching, taught by a team of senior faculty and guest lecturers. Programs ended with a synthesis presented through a project evaluation exercise. Participants used case projects to examine strategies from the viewpoint of both public and private partners — to assess the feasibility and potential impacts of policies and projects on the community and the city. Presentations by guest speakers, representing U.S. and international agencies, NGOs, and community groups, were also integrated within the pedagogic framework of each module.

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“Community-Based Urbanization and Favelas Rehabilitation Processes,” Case Study in Academy Editions, Architecture of Empowerment: People, Shelter and Livable Cities, for Fortaleza, Brazil, 1997

Abstract

Specialists at the Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design, including Mona Serageldin, wrote the report “Community-Based Urbanization and Favelas Rehabilitation Processes” in 1997, published in The Architecture of Empowerment: People, Shelter and Livable Cities.

This housing case study of Fortaleza, Brazil examined the four interlinked urban programs in Fortaleza, which formed a coordinated framework for public and community action to address the human and environmental aspects of rapid urbanization. Programs combined capacity building, participation, civic engagement, and community-based management of local resources.


[Excerpt: Final Report, 1997]

“Fortaleza’s interlinked urban programs (Mutirão 50, Comunidades, Casa Melhor and the Integration Council) created a framework for coordinated public and community action addressing the human aspects as well as the environmental dimensions of rapid urbanization. The programs combined capacity building, participation, civic engagement and community based management of local resources. Fortaleza, the capital of the Ceara State, in the Northern region of Brazil, has a population of 2.5 million inhabitants, over half of whom live in more than 350 irregular settlements, known as “favelas”, lacking infrastructure and services. Rapid demographic growth and sustained migration from rural areas has fueled their proliferation. Since 1973, a new favela has developed every month . . .”
. . . .

“The goal of the Mutirão 50 pilot and the Comunidades programs is to create an interface for coordinated action by the different actors involved in urban development. The process capitalizes on the complementary roles of NGOs that have the capacity to innovate and lead an outreach and mobilization effort, and the public authorities that can foster institutionalization and replication of successful actions. The programs have 3 strategic objectives: to create a setting for self-built mutirões housing; to generate employment opportunities; and to set in motion a process of sustainable development.“

“The programs reinforce citizen participation and the autonomy of community based organizations by building up their capacity to negotiate with public authorities and broadening their vision and understanding of the wider socio-economic context. The Comunidades program is managed by a special commission, referred to as the Integration Council. It includes two representatives of each of the partners involved: the State, the municipalities, the university and the technical school, the NGOs and the community groups. . . “
. . . .

“Close ties to education and research institutions help develop innovative approaches to the three complementary and integrated action lines of the program: Housing construction institutional development and job creation. In light of the importance given to technical training, the collaborative effort with educational institutions is considered critical to the program’s success.”

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:1995
Project Type:Research Paper
Geographic Regions:Fortaleza, Brazil
Reports:Community Based Urbanization and Favelas Rehabilitation Processes: (Final Report, 1997)
Authors:Mona Serageldin; Boguslaw Trondowski; Sameh Wahba
Sponsors:Center for Urban Development Studies, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:Urban Planning
  
ID:1995_00_006

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ITP 1994: “Revitalization in Older Urban Spaces,” Upham’s Corner, Dorchester, Boston, South Boston, and New Haven (US); Montpellier (France); and Cork (Ireland) with Case Studies, International Education Programs, 1994

Abstract

Curriculum components from the 1994 International Training Program (ITP), “Revitalization of Older Urban Spaces,” included case studies for developments in Science Park, in New Haven, Connecticut; Dorchester Bay Enterprise Park; Cork’s Historic Center; Montpellier’s Eurocite Technopolis; the Boston Megaplex; South Boston’s Electric Vehicle Manufacturing Facility; and the Upham’s Corner Commercial Revitalization Projects.

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:1994
Project Type:ITP; Education
Geographic Regions:Boston, Massachusetts, US / New Haven, Connecticut, US / Cork, Ireland / Montpellier, France
Reports:
Authors:Barry Shaw; David Knowles; Bob Haas
Sponsors:Unit for Housing and Urbanization, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:International Training Program; Education
  
ID:1994_07_001

Related I2UD Projects

Beginning in 1982, the Unit for Housing and Urbanization at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design hosted International Training Programs (ITP), an annual series of 2- to 4-week summer seminars designed to strengthen the decision-making skills of senior professionals in public and private agencies responsible for urban development.

The I2UD Digital Library holds curriculum materials for ITPs from 1988, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, and 1998:

The tradition of ITPs continued after 2000, when the Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) (a re-organization of the Unit) continued training seminars as International Education Programs (IEP) from 2000-2004:

Programs included inter-linked modules, lectures, case studies, interactive computer simulation models, site visits to urban projects, discussion groups and networking with professional counterparts from international metropolitan regions. Sessions had a modular format and structured team teaching, taught by a team of senior faculty and guest lecturers. Programs ended with a synthesis presented through a project evaluation exercise. Participants used case projects to examine strategies from the viewpoint of both public and private partners — to assess the feasibility and potential impacts of policies and projects on the community and the city. Presentations by guest speakers, representing U.S. and international agencies, NGOs, and community groups, were also integrated within the pedagogic framework of each module.

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ITP 1991: “Development Strategies for Urban Regeneration of Old Urban Fabric,” Case Studies and Seminar Curriculum, International Training Programs, 1991

Abstract

The 1991 International Training Program (ITP), hosted by the Unit for Housing and Urbanization (the Unit) at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design, addressed strategies of re-manipulating old urban fabric, including plans to restructure central zones, recapture the development potential of strategically located parcels, and preserve valued urban and architectural heritage.

Case studies addressed a range of old urban zones needing restructure:

  • Redeveloping obsolete and dilapidated zones (London Docklands);
  • Reshaping deteriorating central zones (Boston’s Waterfront);
  • Halting the degradation of the physical environment (Hafsia district in Tunis, Tunisia); and
  • Preserving the distinctive character of historical areas (Vieux Carré in New Orleans).

Documents represent curriculum components from the 1991 ITP, including case studies, project summaries, newspaper and journal articles, and module overviews. Some materials may be replicated in other years of the ITP programs.

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:1991
Project Type:ITP; Education
Geographic Regions:Waterfront, Boston, USA / London Docklands, UK / Hafsia, Tunis, Tunisia / Vieux Carré, New Orleans, USA / Kreuzberg, Berlin, Germany / Maarouf, Cairo, Egypt / Walled City of Lahore, Pakistan / Ij Waterfront, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Reports:
Authors:François Vigier; Mr Victor Karen; Barry Shaw
Sponsors:Unit for Housing and Urbanization, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:International Training Program; Education
  
ID:1991_07_001

Related I2UD Projects

Beginning in 1982, the Unit for Housing and Urbanization at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design hosted International Training Programs (ITP), an annual series of 2- to 4-week summer seminars designed to strengthen the decision-making skills of senior professionals in public and private agencies responsible for urban development.

The I2UD Digital Library holds curriculum materials for ITPs from 1988, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, and 1998:

The tradition of ITPs continued after 2000, when the Center for Urban Development Studies (CUDS) (a re-organization of the Unit) continued training seminars as International Education Programs (IEP) from 2000-2004:

Programs included inter-linked modules, lectures, case studies, interactive computer simulation models, site visits to urban projects, discussion groups and networking with professional counterparts from international metropolitan regions. Sessions had a modular format and structured team teaching, taught by a team of senior faculty and guest lecturers. Programs ended with a synthesis presented through a project evaluation exercise. Participants used case projects to examine strategies from the viewpoint of both public and private partners — to assess the feasibility and potential impacts of policies and projects on the community and the city. Presentations by guest speakers, representing U.S. and international agencies, NGOs, and community groups, were also integrated within the pedagogic framework of each module.

Galleries 6-7: Egypt: Cairo and Helwan (1986, 1990)

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“Sustainable Improvement Strategies for Lower Income Urban Communities,” Upgrading Policy Plans for Amman and Aqaba (Jordan), Cairo (Egypt), and Karachi (Pakistan), 1990

Abstract

In 1990, the Unit for Housing and Urbanization undertook a project, “Sustainable Improvement Strategies for Lower Income Urban Communities,” focusing on upgrading strategies for low-income neighborhoods in Amman and Aqaba (Jordan), Cairo (Egypt), and Karachi (Pakistan).

The project was in collaboration with the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDC) in Jordan and the Department of Community Health at the Aga Khan University in Karachi. Co-funded by the Ford Foundation and UNICEF, the study assessed projects in Jordan and Egypt that demonstrated successful approaches to improving environmental quality in urban neighborhoods.

The assessments focused on determining the potential for empowering lower income households to improve their economic conditions and living environments through the provision of appropriate infrastructure services. In Karachi, the Unit funded a survey of low-income communities (see “Issues Checklist”).

Documents include an overall summary of the study components and a working paper on “Sustainability of Public Spaces,” prepared by Howard Trett for the Unit in December 1990, as well as component reports by region. Supporting documents are an outline of the research agenda, a quality of life “Issues Checklist for the Reassessment of Common Spaces,” and a background report on HUDC Municipal and NGO Support Options for urban development assistance to the studied regions.


[Excerpt: “Summary of Overall Study Components,” p. 1-2]

PROBLEM DEFINITION
“The World Health Organization estimates that 5 million deaths and 2 to 3 million cases of permanent disability are caused yearly by contaminated water, poor sanitation, air pollution and overcrowding. The cumulative impact of these conditions is the most severe for children in low income urban neighborhoods. It is estimated that a child born in a squatter settlement is 40—to-50 times more likely to die before the age of five than a child in an industrialized country. According to the UN, efforts to alleviate these conditions through conventional upgrading and sites-and-services projects, has reached only ten percent of the urban poor. This investment has been concentrated in 150 projects which sought to achieve replicability through lower standards and higher levels of cost recovery.”

“These projects, which necessitate central government subsidies in one form or another, are increasingly becoming unaffordable to nations burdened by heavy foreign debts at a time when decentralization policies are shifting the responsibility of providing services to local governments.”

“Municipalities in developing countries are attempting to cope with their new obligations by redefining their land development strategies, reorganizing their institutional structures and finding new methods of generating the financial resources necessary to provide and maintain urban services.”
…
“The ability of local government to respond to needs, and the effectiveness of the responses are linked to the capability to formulate and implement affordable improvement strategies which are also sustainable without a continuous infusion of public resources.”


PROJECT GOAL
“The research project seeks to identify, define and test strategies and methods to enable government authorities with private sector participation, to develop sustainable approaches to upgrading and maintaining urban environments in limited income communities. Special emphasis will be placed on defining strategies which have beneficial impacts on the quality of life for children and youths.”

PROJECT OBJECTIVES
– “Identify and select pragmatic approaches to sustaining environmental quality in low-income urban neighborhoods with particular emphasis on the needs of children and youths.

– Identify, select and define appropriate monitoring and evaluation criteria to appraise prevailing levels of urban environmental quality including health and sanitary conditions.

– Develop guidelines for sustainable improvement programs to be implemented by public authorities and non-government organizations.

– Train public officials and members of community organizations in assessment techniques and implementation of action programs for improving and maintaining environmental quality.”

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:1990-1992
Project Type:Policy Plan
Geographic Regions:Amman and Aqaba, Jordan / Cairo, Egypt / Karachi, Pakistan
Reports:—
Authors:John Driscoll; Mona Serageldin; Howard Trett; François Vigier
Sponsors:Ford Foundation; UNICEF; Unit for Housing and Urbanization, Harvard University Graduate School of Design; Aga Khan Trust for Culture; Housing and Urban Development Corporation (Jordan)
Categories:Informal Settlements and Urban Upgrading
  
ID:1990_01_001

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I2UD Photograph Collection, Galleries 6-7: Egypt: Cairo and Helwan (1986, 1990)

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“Environmental Health Factors in Housing,” Design Study for the Rapid Urbanization of Low-Income Settlements in Urban-Fringe Districts, 1989

Abstract

“Environmental Health Factors in Housing” was a study from 1989 by the Unit for Housing and Urbanization (the Unit) at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design that addressed the link between rapid urbanization and rapid densification of low-income housing settlements in economically struggling cities.

The report addressed the environmental hazards, poverty, disease, and housing conditions emerging in areas around housing developments that had been built recently but lacked adequate infrastructure for socio-economic longevity and community health. The Unit presented its aim to form a model for affordable, practical design criteria, attuned to both economic and social factors for urban-fringe districts.

Documents include working reports from April, July, and August 1989, a study summary, and a research strategy and methodological guidelines document by Rafique H. Keshavjee and Orville Solon from December 1989.



[Excerpt: Study Summary, I. Overview, July 1989, p. 2]

“Most urban settlements in lower-income countries, whether they are new settlements built by the government, established informal communities or new squatter areas, are subject to tremendous pressures of population growth and economic and physical change. The greater the pressure for development, the more rapid the transformations brought about by this maturation process. This continuous growth and change can rapidly transform their original physical forms beyond recognition and alter the community’s social and economic functions. The process is further intensified when governments introduce improvements such as water, sewerage, basic services and housing. For example, carefully planned housing projects designed according to standards which assume a segregation of commercial and residential activities will find that, overtime, these activities will occur simultaneously in the same area.

The need of low-income families to generate additional income and living space results in the construction of new rooms and apartments which were often not anticipated in the original design of the site or its infrastructure. In such cities as Karachi, Dhakka and Cairo, where housing shortages are high, additions to structures can reach over six stories in less than five years, raising densities from under 400 to over 1,000 persons per hectare. The most dynamic aspect of transformation within a community affects housing, small scale commercial establishments and the disappearance or overuse of communal open
spaces.”

…..

[Excerpt: Study Summary, III. STUDY DESIGN, July 1989, p. 7]

“The purpose of the Study is to develop practical, affordable design criteria which are responsive to the social and economic dynamics of low-income settlements. It will focus on aspects of housing and community design which have received little attention in the past. Most notably, the long-term impact of rapid growth in low-income urban settlements and the effect of the resulting transformation of housing and environmental conditions on the health of the residents. The definition of this linkage and the development of appropriate environmental design criteria, will allow decision makers to choose physical improvements that will maintain their positive impacts as a community matures.“

Project Year:1989
Project Type:Environmental Climate Research Paper
Geographic Regions:Global / None Specified
Reports:
Authors:Mona Serageldin; François Vigier; Rafique H. Keshavjee; Orville Solon
Sponsors:World Bank; Unit for Housing and Urbanization, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:Climate Change and Resilience Building
  
ID:1989_07_001
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Design Studio 1988: “Urban Infrastructure Planning and Programing in Developing Countries,” Chapters 1-7, Seminar Curriculum

Abstract

The Design Studio from Spring 1988, “Urban Infrastructure: Planning and Programming in Developing Countries” was developed by Mona Serageldin, with students and scholars from the Aga Khan Unit for Housing and Urbanization at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design.

The 1988 Design Studio outlined problems and urban infrastructure programs, illustrated by maps, demographics, and case study reports. Curriculum materials give particular attention to support for the urban poor, with case studies on Indonesia, Bahrain, and Zhejiang Province in China. Seven chapters address infrastructure issues in light of rapid urbanization, including unemployment and underemployment in urbanizing countries, and an increased demand for basic needs like water supply and shelter.

A final Design Studio student report on Bahrain, features 99 pages of rich spatial, social, commercial, and architectural overview of historic Muharraq, Bahrain’s third largest city. Section 5.0 features a paper condensed from Arabic, by Tareq Wali, “Traditional Urban Fabric and Architecture,” including a substantial list of tables, maps, and references. Additional sections cover the historical evolution of the district:

  • 5.1: The Development of Muharraq;
  • 5.2: Morphology of the Traditional Urban Fabric & The Organization of Space;
  • 5.3: Commercial Element;
  • 5.4: Residential Elements; and
  • Annex: Notes on Building Materials and Architecture.



[Excerpt, Chapter 6, Paper B, The Urban Operational Perspective. “Introduction to the Course Background,” for “Urban Infrastructure, Planning and Programming in Developing Countries, p. 1.1]

“Virtually without exception in the cities and towns of the developing world, the ability to plan, finance and implement urban development programs and infrastructure programs in particular, is in a state of crisis. Severe deficiencies exist and are growing in nearly all sub-sectors. Explosive population growth, partly through immigration from rural areas and in the cases of the largest cities, natural growth, have placed pressures on city authorities for increased services. For instance, the population of the urban areas in developing countries is likely to grow by 1 billion over the next two decades. Simultaneously with growth to date, the state of existing services has universally deteriorated.”

“At the same time the governments in these countries are trying valiantly to cope with what are prime concerns; large and growing unemployment and under employment, and raised expectations by their peoples of access to minimum basic needs in water supply, shelter, etc. These pressures though countrywide, are visibly focused in the urban areas, and thus influence political, administrative, financial, and economic decisions, not always in a coherent or rational manner.”

“Urbanization involves costs to the public sector which amount to large shares of total public spending. Dense human settlement requires levels of servicing – for health reasons, if no other – which are not as essential elsewhere. Rising incomes increase demands for water, electricity, road space, telephones are similar public services. Expectations for urban amenities and appearances are high, and the costs of providing them are also high. Growth of the larger cities often involves diseconomies of scale – longer pumping distances for water and traveling distances for commuters, for example. In some of the largest metropolitan areas, geographical shape and terrain accentuate the costs of growth: Bangkok, Bombay and Mexico City come to mind. Soaring land prices add to the costs of private and public sector development.”

See related I2UD projects below

Project Year:1988
Project Type:Urban Design Studio
Geographic Regions:Indonesia / Muharraq, Bahrain / Zhejiang Province, China
Reports:
Authors:David B. Cook; Mona Serageldin; Geeta Pradhan; Tarek Waly; Jens Lorentzen; John Kirke; David Gilmore
Sponsors:Unit for Housing and Urbanization, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Categories:Design Studios; Education
  
ID:1988_00_004

Related I2UD Projects

Gallery 3 – BAHRAIN: Manama and Muharraq, 1980s